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5. History:19-22 ★
v Herodotus (-484-430):
v “Father of History”, he is famous for the descriptions he wrote of different places and people he met on his travels and his many books about the Persian invasion in Greece.
v Thucydides (-460-404):
v The author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides is generally regarded as one of the first true historians. Unlike his predecessor Herodotus who included rumors and references to myths and the gods in his writing, Thucydides assiduously consulted written documents and interviewed participants in the events that he records.
v By his discovery of historic causation he created the first scientific approach to history.
6-1. Art: Architecture
v The most important contribution lies in the temples built upon the Acropolis hill, so called the "Sacred Rock" of Athens.
v The temples on the Acropolis hill includes the Parthenon-the Temple of Athena Parthenos, and the Temple of Athena Nike
Three styles of Greek architecture: 32-3 ★ ★
v 1. Doric(多利安式) style:
v Rather sturdy and its top is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. (picture: Parthenon - temple of Athena Parthenos)
v 2. Ionic(爱奥尼亚式的) style ★ ★
v Thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute涡形花样). This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands. (The Temple of Athena Nike - part of the Acropolis in the city of Athens.)
v 3. Corinthian(科林斯风格的)style ★ ★
v Seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves. (The temple of Zeus at Athens)
6.2 Art: Sculpture(雕刻) 33-4
v The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods. They are mostly stiff, lifeless wood carving. (来源：英语杂志 http://www.EnglishCN.com)
v Towards the 5th century B.C.
v Greek sculpture began to represent the ideal bodily beauty of men as well as mythological figures.
v Around 5C B.C
v Figures develop more sophisticated anatomy but still retain a "cubic" feel that has been carried down since Egyptian times. Figures are more three dimensional. Archer c. 490 B.C.
v "Diskobolos" (Discus Thrower) by Myron c. 450 B.C.
v Understanding of anatomy, and carving of marble, are becoming increasingly sophisticated.
v Action is being investigated. A strong sense of body movement and a good sense of harmony between parts.
v Laocoon group , ca. 125 B.C.
v Laocoon(拉奥孔), a priest of Troy, was made to suffer a slow death and killed by serpents with his sons because of his warning the Trojans against Greek attack.( 拉奥孔：特洛伊的太阳神祭师，因警告特洛伊人不要中木马计而连同其二个儿了一起被两条海蟒杀死)
v Noted for successful depiction of the expressions of Laocoon’s face-fear, sympathy and terror.
7.Philosophy: 22-30
v Western philosophy, tragedy and history start with the Greeks .
v It was Pythagoras who coined the term philosophia, Greek for 'love of wisdom' (philo-”love” & sophia-”wisdom”).
v The origin of philosophy has to do with the curiosity of the Greeks. They were strongly interested in abstract questions that were not raised by others. Where did the world come from? What is the purpose of human existence? What is the best way to organize human society?
v Cf. ideas in Greek religion
Thales, the first philosopher
v Men in Ionia starting in the early 500s began to speculate about the nature of the world. Thales of Miletus (early 6th century BC) was the first philosopher of historical record:( Ionia爱奥尼亚：古代小亚细亚西部沿爱琴海海岸的一个地区。希腊人在公元前 1000年以前在这儿建立了殖民地。爱奥尼亚的海港从 公元前 8世纪开始繁荣起来，直到 公元 15世纪土耳其人的征服)
v All natural phenomena are different forms of one fundamental substance, water;
v Evaporation蒸发(作用) and condensation(浓缩): the universal processes
Three early philosophers: 22 ★
1. Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC)
v All things are made up of numbers . (民数记(旧约圣经的第四卷)
v Pythagoreanism(毕达哥拉斯哲学)was more religious and mystical :
v The soul is a prisoner of the body; it is released from the body at death, and reincarnated in a higher or lower form of life, depending on the degree of virtue achieved.
v So the highest purpose of humans should be to purify their souls by cultivating intellectual virtues, refraining from sensual pleasures, and practicing various religious rituals.
2. Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 540-480 BC) 赫拉克利特：希腊哲学家，他坚持斗争和变化是宇宙的自然状态的观点
v The primary substance of the world is fire.
v The entire world is in a constant state of change or flux. As he said, “you cannot step twice into the same river.”
v Most objects and substances are produced by a union of opposite principles.
3. Democritus (c. 460-370 BC) 德谟克利特：希腊哲学家，他发展了宇宙原子论，并拥护以自制和安乐为人生目标的学说
v Deterministic materialism: all aspects of existence are rigidly determined by physical (natural) laws.
v Atomic theory: various forms of matter were caused by differences in the shape, size, position, and arrangement of component atoms.
The Sophists: (诡辩家,博学者)29 ★ ★ ★
The “sophists” means "practitioners of wisdom." In reality they are a group of traveling teachers famous throughout Greece toward the end of the 5th century BC. Specializing in rhetoric(雄辩，辩才), the art of arguing, they were more professional educators than philosophers
How the sophists emerged ★ ★ ★
v As Greek industry and commerce expanded, a class of newly rich, economically powerful merchants began to wield political power. Lacking the education of the aristocrats, they sought to prepare themselves for politics and commerce by paying the Sophists for instruction in public speaking, legal argument, and general culture.
v Although the best of the Sophists made valuable contributions to Greek thought, the group as a whole acquired a reputation for deceit, insincerity, and demagoguery. Thus the word sophistry has come to signify these moral faults.
Protagoras (c. 490-420 BC): a leading figure of the Sophists: ★ ★ ★
(普罗塔哥拉：希腊的哲学家，被认为是第一个诡辩家。他根据他自己的格言“人类是衡量所有事物的标准”来教授哲学)
1. Skepticism(怀疑论)
v "As for the gods, I don't know whether they exist.“
v No existence of any objective or absolute knowledge.
2. Moral relativism
v "Man is the measure of all things."
v →Each man has the right to judge all matters for himself, hence, could create his own definition of morality. No opinion was truer than another, but one might be better.
v → Since traditional values had been shown to be mere convention, and since philosophical speculation had removed the divine from human affairs, morality was purely relative and the advantage of the more powerful was itself "good".
1. Socrates: 23 ★ ★ ★
苏格拉底：希腊哲学家，首创了问答工教学方法，作为获得认识自我的一种方法。他关于道德和正义的理论，通过柏拉图（他最著名的学生）的著作而得以流传下来。苏格拉底因被指控毒害雅典年轻人的头脑而受到审判，并因此被处死（公元前339年）)
v Belief in absolute knowledge. Socrates attacked the sophists, claiming that the "good" was absolute, and that knowledge of what is right leads one to do it. No human agent ever knowingly does evil: for we all invariably do what we believe to be best. Thus, immorality is basically a form of ignorance.
v Therefore, Socrates’ contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical(伦理学的)in character. Concepts such as justice, love, virtue, and self-knowledge were the basis of his teachings.
Socratic method: ★ ★ ★
v Socrates’ most important contribution to Western thought is his dialogical method of enquiry, known as the Socratic method, or dialectical method. He stressed the need for analytica(分析法的)l examination of one's beliefs; for clear definitions of basic concepts. As he said:
v “The life which is unexamined is not worth living”. — Apology
v The Socratic method is a process in which one keeps asking questions and then dissecting the answers to bring out the inadequacies and inconsistencies in the beliefs of the interlocutors. This method Socrates applied to the examination of the key moral concepts at the time, i.e. the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice.
Effect on western thought
v Pedagogically(教育学的), this classic method of teaching tend to create autonomous thinkers, as the reasoning process is considered more important than facts, and students are encouraged to reason rather than appeal to authority. We still remember what Plato said:
v “I love my mento(门特(良师益友), 贤明的顾问, 导师), but I love truth more.”
Plato’s Idealism: ★ ★ ★唯心主义
柏拉图：希腊哲学家，苏格拉底的信徒，他创办了学园（公元前386年），在这里他教书写作度过他余生的大部分时间柏拉图以戏剧对话的形式表述了他的思想，如在理想国 中
v Idealism: The basis of Plato's philosophy is his theory of Ideas, or Forms. Plato's metaphysics divides the world into two distinct aspects: the intelligible world of "forms" and the perceptual world we see around us. He saw the perceptual things as imperfect copies of the intelligible forms, hence, not completely real.
v In other words, ontologically trees, stones, human bodies, and other objects that can be known through the senses are not real, while the forms of trees, stones, human bodies, and other objects are unchangeable and perfect.
v In an epistemological sense, beliefs derived from experience of sense objects are vague and unreliable, whereas the principles of mathematics and philosophy, discovered by inner, rationalistic meditation on the Forms or Ideas, constitute the only knowledge worthy of the name.
The Academy he established is the first school in the world.
Aristotle (384-322 BC): 27
亚里士多德：希腊哲学家。柏拉图的学生，亚历山大大帝的教师，他的著述论及逻辑学，形而上学，伦理学，自然科学，政治学和诗学，对西方思想产生了深远影响，在其哲学体系里，理论服从实地观察和逻辑，以三段论为基础，基本上是理性研究的理论方法
tutor of Alexander the Great & founder of the Lyceum which remained for centuries one of the great centers of learning in Greece ★
Differences between Plato and Aristotle in their philosophical ideas ★ ★ ★
v 1. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive:
v i. Unlike Plato, Aristotle preferred to establish the ultimate basis of things inductively—from particular facts to a universal conclusion, or from effects to causes. In other words, Aristotle emphasizes direct observation of nature and insists that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.
Inductive(归纳的)reasoning: ★ ★ ★
v Induction, sometimes called inductive logic(归纳逻辑), is the process of reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument is very likely to be true, but not certain, given the premises. It is always based on limited observations of particular tokens(标志)or recurring phenomenal patterns. For example:
v This swan is white.
v A billiard ball moves when struck with a cue.
v to infer general propositions such as:
v All swans are white.
v For every action, there is an equal and opposite re-action
Deductive reasoning: syllogism ★ ★ ★[逻]三段论法
【逻辑学】 三段论：一种演绎推理形式，包括大前提、小前提和结论；如，所有的人都会死， 是大前提 我是一个人， 是小前提 因此，我会死 是结论
v ii. In founding the science of logic Aristotle developed the theory of deductive inference, represented by the syllogism, a deductive argument having two premises and a conclusion.
v →Human is mortal;
v → Socrates is human;
v → Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
v → All apples are fruit.
v → All fruits grow on trees.
v → Therefore all apples grow on trees.
Another difference between Plato and Aristotle★ ★ ★
v 2. In his metaphysical(形而上学的, 纯粹哲学的)theory, Aristotle criticized Plato's separation of form from matter and maintained that the Forms are contained within the concrete objects that exemplify them, that is, the form and matter were inherent in all things, and inseparable.
v Here, too, he differs from Plato, who holds that ideas are independent beings and have a higher reality than the physical world.
Hellenistic(希腊风格的)and Roman Philosophy
v From the 4th century BC to the rise of Christian philosophy in the 4th century AD, the main philosophical schools in the Greco-Roman world were:
v · Cynicism: cf. 29
v Epicureanism(伊比鸠鲁学说--享乐主义)
v · Stoicism
v · Skepticism
v · Neoplatonism(新柏拉图派哲学 )
1. Epicureanism ★ ★ ★享乐主义
伊壁鸠鲁学说：伊壁鸠鲁介导的哲学，认为欢乐、或者避免痛苦和感情上的困扰是最高的幸福
v Epicurus (341-270 BC), an atomist, founded a philosophical school in Athens in 306 BC. 伊壁鸠鲁(公元前342?-270, 古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者)
v The aim of life is to achieve the maximum amount of pleasure (which he identified with gentle emotion and absence of pain); virtue is desirable not for itself, but for the sake of pleasure of soul, which it secures by freeing men from trouble and fear, moderating their passions and appetites.
v True happiness: tranquility, which can only be achieved through self-restraint, moderation, and detachment.
v The erroneous confusion between Epicureanism and the crudely sensual hedonism .
v A common sense of “epicurean”: devoted to the pursuit of pleasure; fond of good food, comfort, and ease.
2. Stoicism ★ ★ ★斯多葛哲学--淡泊主义：不以苦乐为意，淡泊
v Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period preceding the rise of Christianity.
v Zeno of Citium (c. 335-263 BC) founded the Stoic school in Athens about 310 BC. The Stoic philosophy developed from that of the Cynics whose founder, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates.
齐诺(① Zeno of Citium西希昂的齐诺, 前340?-前265?, 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人
Stoic ethics ★ ★ ★
v The Stoics, like the Epicureans, emphasized ethics as the main field of knowledge. But to the Stoics the most important thing in life is not “pleasure,” but “duty.” Therefore, one must "Follow where Reason leads“ so as to resist the influence of the passions—love, hate, fear, pain, and pleasure, and calmly accept all occurrences as the unavoidable result of divine will or of the natural order.
v → the four cardinal virtues of the Stoic philosophy are wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance, a classification derived from the teachings of Plato.
v A common sense of “stoic”: seemingly indifferent to or unaffected by pleasure or pain; impassive:
3. Skepticism ★ ★ ★怀疑论
v A Greek school of thought which continued the Sophist criticisms of objective knowledge; it denied the possibility of attaining any knowledge of reality apart from human perception.
v Pyrrho（庇罗(希腊哲学家, 怀疑论的始祖) of Elis (c. 360-272 BC) established a school of Greek philosophy where the principles of skepticism were first explicitly formulated.
v Pyrrho’s primary concern was ethics; he maintained that human beings can know nothing of the real nature of things, and that consequently the wise person will suspend judgment.
4. Neoplatonism 新柏拉图派哲学
v Neoplatonism is that form of Platonic philosophy developed by Plotinus in the 3rd century AD and modified by his successors.
v Neoplatonic doctrine may be characterized as follows:
v 1. by a categorical opposition between the spiritual and the carnal, elaborated from Plato's dualism of Idea and matter
v 2. by the metaphysical hypothesis of mediating agencies, the nous and the world soul, which transmit the divine power from the One to the many
v 3. by an aversion to the world of sense
v by the necessity of liberation from a life of sense through a rigorous ascetic discipline
8. Science
v .Euclid（欧几里德：古希腊数学家，他把逻辑学中的演绎原理应用到几何学中，籍以由定义明确的公理导出语句 ）
v Archimedes （阿基米德：希腊数学家、工程师及物理学家。作为古代最重要的智慧人物之一，他发现了不同几何形体的面积和体积公式，将几何学应用于流体静力学和机械学，设计了许多灵巧装置，如阿基米德螺旋泵，并发现了浮力定理） Cf. p.31
Qualities of Greek culture: 35 ★ ★ ★
v i. Spirit of innovation（改革, 创新）
v ii. Supreme achievement
v iii. Lasting effect |
